Jump to content

Scandium

Edit links
This is a good article. Click here for more information.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Element 21" redirects here. For the golf company, see Element 21 (company).
Scandium, 21Sc
Scandium
Pronunciation/ˈskændiəm/ ​(SKAN-dee-əm)
Appearancesilvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Sc)
Scandium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Sc
↓
Y
calcium ← scandium → titanium
Atomic number (Z)21
Groupgroup 3
Periodperiod 4
Block  d-block
Electron configuration[Ar] 3d1 4s2
Electrons per shell2, 8, 9, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point1814 K ​(1541 °C, ​2806 °F)
Boiling point3109 K ​(2836 °C, ​5136 °F)
Density (at 20° C)2.989 g/cm3 [3]
when liquid (at m.p.)2.80 g/cm3
Heat of fusion14.1 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization332.7 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity25.52 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1645 1804 (2006) (2266) (2613) (3101)
Atomic properties
Oxidation statescommon: +3
0,[4] +1,[5] +2[6]
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.36
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 633.1 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1235.0 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 2388.6 kJ/mol
  • (more)
Atomic radiusempirical: 162 pm
Covalent radius170±7 pm
Van der Waals radius211 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of scandium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​hexagonal close-packed (hcp) (hP2)
Lattice constants
Hexagonal close packed crystal structure for scandium
a = 330.89 pm c = 526.80 pm (at 20 °C)[3]
Thermal expansion9.97×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[a]
Thermal conductivity15.8 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivityα, poly: 562 nΩ⋅m (at r.t., calculated)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic
Molar magnetic susceptibility+315.0×10−6 cm3/mol (292 K)[7]
Young's modulus74.4 GPa
Shear modulus29.1 GPa
Bulk modulus56.6 GPa
Poisson ratio0.279
Brinell hardness736–1200 MPa
CAS Number7440-20-2
History
Namingafter Scandinavia
PredictionDmitri Mendeleev (1871)
Discovery and first isolationLars Fredrik Nilson (1879)
Isotopes of scandium
Main isotopes[8] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
44m2Sc synth 58.61 h IT 44Sc
γ 44Sc
ε 44Ca
45Sc 100% stable
46Sc synth 83.79 d β− 46Ti
γ –
47Sc synth 80.38 h β− 47Ti
γ –
48Sc synth 43.67 h β− 48Ti
γ –
 Category: Scandium
| references

Scandium is a chemical element with the symbol Sc and atomic number 21. It is a silvery-white metallic d-block element. Historically, it has been classified as a rare-earth element,[9] together with yttrium and the lanthanides. It was discovered in 1879 by spectral analysis of the minerals euxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia.[10]

Scandium is present in most of the deposits of rare-earth and uranium compounds, but it is extracted from these ores in only a few mines worldwide. Because of the low availability and difficulties in the preparation of metallic scandium, which was first done in 1937, applications for scandium were not developed until the 1970s, when the positive effects of scandium on aluminium alloys were discovered. Its use in such alloys remains its only major application. The global trade of scandium oxide is 15–20 tonnes per year.[11]

The properties of scandium compounds are intermediate between those of aluminium and yttrium. A diagonal relationship exists between the behavior of magnesium and scandium, just as there is between beryllium and aluminium. In the chemical compounds of the elements in group 3, the predominant oxidation state is +3.

Properties

[edit]

Chemical characteristics

[edit]

Scandium is a soft metal with a silvery appearance. It develops a slightly yellowish or pinkish cast when oxidized by air. It is susceptible to weathering and dissolves slowly in most dilute acids. It does not react with a 1:1 mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and 48.0% hydrofluoric acid (HF), possibly due to the formation of an impermeable passive layer. Scandium turnings ignite in the air with a brilliant yellow flame to form scandium oxide.[12]

Isotopes

[edit]
Main article: Isotopes of scandium

In nature, scandium is found exclusively as the isotope 45Sc, which has a nuclear spin of 7⁄2; this is its only stable isotope.[13]

The known isotopes of scandium range from 37Sc to 62Sc.[8] The most stable radioisotope is 46Sc, which has a half-life of 83.8 days. Others are 47Sc, 3.35 days; the positron emitter 44Sc, 4 hours; and 48Sc, 43.7 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives less than 4 hours, and the majority of them have half-lives less than 2 minutes. The low mass isotopes are very difficult to create.[13] The initial detection of 37Sc and 38Sc only resulted in the characterization of their mass excess.[14][15] Scandium also has five nuclear isomers: the most stable of these is 44m2Sc (t1/2 = 58.6 h).[16]

The primary decay mode of ground-state scandium isotopes at masses lower than the only stable isotope, 45Sc, is electron capture (or positron emission), but the lightest isotopes (37Sc to 39Sc) undergo proton emission instead, all three of these producing calcium isotopes. The primary decay mode at masses above 45Sc is beta emission, producing titanium isotopes.[8]

Occurrence

[edit]

In Earth's crust, scandium is not rare. Estimates vary from 18 to 25 ppm, which is comparable to the abundance of cobalt (20–30 ppm). Scandium is only the 50th most common element on Earth (35th most abundant element in the crust), but it is the 23rd most common element in the Sun[17] and the 26th most abundant element in the stars.[18] However, scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals.[19] Rare minerals from Scandinavia[20] and Madagascar[21] such as thortveitite, euxenite, and gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element. Thortveitite can contain up to 45% of scandium in the form of scandium oxide.[20]

The stable form of scandium is created in supernovas via the r-process.[22] Also, scandium is created by cosmic ray spallation of the more abundant iron nuclei.

  • 28Si + 17n → 45Sc (r-process)
  • 56Fe + p → 45Sc + 11C + n (cosmic ray spallation)

Production

[edit]

The world production of scandium is in the order of 15–20 tonnes per year, in the form of scandium oxide. The demand is slightly higher,[23] and both the production and demand keep increasing. In 2003, only three mines produced scandium: the uranium and iron mines in Zhovti Vody in Ukraine, the rare-earth mines in Bayan Obo, China, and the apatite mines in the Kola Peninsula, Russia.[citation needed] Since then, many other countries have built scandium-producing facilities, including 5 tonnes/year (7.5 tonnes/year Sc2O3) by Nickel Asia Corporation and Sumitomo Metal Mining in the Philippines.[24][25] In the United States, NioCorp Development hopes[when?] to raise $1 billion[26] toward opening a niobium mine at its Elk Creek site in southeast Nebraska,[27] which may be able to produce as much as 95 tonnes of scandium oxide annually.[28] In each case, scandium is a byproduct of the extraction of other elements and is sold as scandium oxide.[29][30][31]

To produce metallic scandium, the oxide is converted to scandium fluoride and then reduced with metallic calcium.[32]

  • Sc2O3 + 6HF → 2ScF3 + 3H2O
  • 2ScF3 + 3Ca → 3CaF2 + 2Sc

Madagascar and the Iveland-Evje region in Norway have the only deposits of minerals with high scandium content, thortveitite (Sc,Y)2(Si2O7), but these are not being exploited.[30] The mineral kolbeckite ScPO4·2H2O has a very high scandium content but is not available in any larger deposits.[30]

The absence of reliable, secure, stable, long-term production has limited the commercial applications of scandium. Despite this low level of use, scandium offers significant benefits. Particularly promising is the strengthening of aluminium alloys with as little as 0.5% scandium.[33] Scandium-stabilized zirconia enjoys a growing market demand for use as a high-efficiency electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells.

The USGS reports that, from 2015 to 2019 in the US, the price of small quantities of scandium ingot has been $107 to $134 per gram, and that of scandium oxide $4 to $5 per gram.[34]

Compounds

[edit]
See also the categories Scandium compounds and Scandium minerals

Scandium chemistry is almost completely dominated by the trivalent ion, Sc3+. The radii of M3+ ions in the table below indicate that the chemical properties of scandium ions have more in common with yttrium ions than with aluminium ions. In part because of this similarity, scandium is often classified as a lanthanide-like element.[35]

Ionic radius (pm)
Al Sc Y La Lu
53.5 74.5 90.0 103.2 86.1

Oxides and hydroxides

[edit]

The oxide Sc
2O
3 and the hydroxide Sc(OH)
3 are amphoteric:[36]

Sc(OH)
3 + 3 OH−
 → [Sc(OH)
6]3−
 (scandate ion)
Sc(OH)
3 + 3 H+
 + 3 H
2O → [Sc(H
2O)
6]3+

α- and γ-ScOOH are isostructural with their aluminium hydroxide oxide counterparts.[37] Solutions of Sc3+
 in water are acidic due to hydrolysis.

Halides and pseudohalides

[edit]

The halides ScX3, where X= Cl, Br, or I, are very soluble in water, but ScF3 is insoluble. In all four halides, the scandium is 6-coordinated. The halides are Lewis acids; for example, ScF3 dissolves in a solution containing excess fluoride ion to form [ScF6]3−. The coordination number 6 is typical for Sc(III). In the larger Y3+ and La3+ ions, coordination numbers of 8 and 9 are common. Scandium triflate is sometimes used as a Lewis acid catalyst in organic chemistry.[38]

Organic derivatives

[edit]
Main article: Organoscandium chemistry

Scandium forms a series of organometallic compounds with cyclopentadienyl ligands (Cp), similar to the behavior of the lanthanides. One example is the chlorine-bridged dimer, [ScCp2Cl]2 and related derivatives of pentamethylcyclopentadienyl ligands.[39]

Uncommon oxidation states

[edit]

Compounds that feature scandium in oxidation states other than +3 are rare but well characterized. The blue-black compound CsScCl3 is one of the simplest. This material adopts a sheet-like structure that exhibits extensive bonding between the scandium(II) centers.[40] Scandium hydride is not well understood, although it appears not to be a saline hydride of Sc(II).[6] As is observed for most elements, a diatomic scandium hydride has been observed spectroscopically at high temperatures in the gas phase.[5] Scandium borides and carbides are non-stoichiometric, as is typical for neighboring elements.[41]

Lower oxidation states (+2, +1, 0) have also been observed in organoscandium compounds.[42][4][43][44]

History

[edit]

Dmitri Mendeleev, who is referred to as the father of the periodic table, predicted the existence of an element ekaboron, with an atomic mass between 40 and 48 in 1869. Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team detected this element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite in 1879. Nilson prepared 2 grams of scandium oxide of high purity.[45][46] He named the element scandium, from the Latin Scandia meaning "Scandinavia". Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev.[47][48]

Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides, at 700–800 °C.[49] The first pound of 99% pure scandium metal was produced in 1960. Production of aluminium alloys began in 1971, following a US patent.[50] Aluminium-scandium alloys were also developed in the USSR.[51]

Laser crystals of gadolinium-scandium-gallium garnet (GSGG) were used in strategic defense applications developed for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) in the 1980s and 1990s.[52][53]

Applications

[edit]

Aluminium alloys

[edit]
Main article: Aluminium–scandium alloys
Parts of the MiG-29 are made from Al-Sc alloy.[54]

The main application of scandium by weight is in aluminium-scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% of scandium. They were used in Russian military aircraft, specifically the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 and MiG-29.[54]

The addition of scandium to aluminium limits the grain growth in the heat zone of welded aluminium components. This has two beneficial effects: the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller crystals than in other aluminium alloys,[54] and the volume of precipitate-free zones at the grain boundaries of age-hardening aluminium alloys is reduced.[54] The Al3Sc precipitate is a coherent precipitate that strengthens the aluminum matrix by applying elastic strain fields that inhibit dislocation movement (i.e., plastic deformation). Al3Sc has an equilibrium L12 superlattice structure exclusive to this system.[55] A fine dispersion of nano scale precipitate can be achieved via heat treatment that can also strengthen the alloys through order hardening.[56] Recent developments include the additions of transition metals such as zirconium (Zr) and rare earth metals like erbium (Er) produce shells surrounding the spherical Al3Sc precipitate that reduce coarsening.[57] These shells are dictated by the diffusivity of the alloying element and lower the cost of the alloy due to less Sc being substituted in part by Zr while maintaining stability and less Sc being needed to form the precipitate.[58] These have made Al3Sc somewhat competitive with titanium alloys along with a wide array of applications. However, titanium alloys, which are similar in lightness and strength, are cheaper and much more widely used.[59]

The alloy Al20Li20Mg10Sc20Ti30 is as strong as titanium, light as aluminium, and hard as some ceramics.[60]

Some items of sports equipment, which rely on lightweight high-performance materials, have been made with scandium-aluminium alloys, including baseball bats,[61] tent poles and bicycle frames and components.[62] Lacrosse sticks are also made with scandium. The American firearm manufacturing company Smith & Wesson produces semi-automatic pistols and revolvers with frames of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium or carbon steel.[63][64]

Since 2013, Apworks GmbH, a spin-off of Airbus, have marketed a high strength Scandium containing aluminium alloy processed using metal 3D-Printing (Laser Powder Bed Fusion) under the trademark Scalmalloy which claims very high strength & ductility.[65]

Light sources

[edit]

The first scandium-based metal-halide lamps were patented by General Electric and made in North America, although they are now produced in all major industrialized countries. Approximately 20 kg of scandium (as Sc2O3) is used annually in the United States for high-intensity discharge lamps.[66] One type of metal-halide lamp, similar to the mercury-vapor lamp, is made from scandium triiodide and sodium iodide. This lamp is a white-light source with high color rendering index that sufficiently resembles sunlight to allow good color-reproduction with TV cameras.[67] About 80 kg of scandium is used in metal-halide lamps/light bulbs globally per year.[68]

Dentists use erbium-chromium-doped yttrium-scandium-gallium garnet (Er,Cr:YSGG) lasers for cavity preparation and in endodontics.[69]

Other

[edit]

The radioactive isotope 46Sc is used in oil refineries as a tracing agent.[66] Scandium triflate is a catalytic Lewis acid used in organic chemistry.[70]

The 12.4 keV nuclear transition of 45Sc has been studied as a reference for timekeeping applications, with a theoretical precision as much as three orders of magnitude better than the current caesium reference clocks.[71]

Scandium has been proposed for use in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) as a dopant in the electrolyte material, typically zirconia (ZrO₂).[72] Scandium oxide (Sc₂O₃) is one of several possible additives to enhance the ionic conductivity of the zirconia, improving the overall thermal stability, performance and efficiency of the fuel cell.[73] This application would be particularly valuable in clean energy technologies, as SOFCs can utilize a variety of fuels and have high energy conversion efficiencies.[74]

Health and safety

[edit]

Elemental scandium is considered non-toxic, though extensive animal testing of scandium compounds has not been done.[75] The median lethal dose (LD50) levels for scandium chloride for rats have been determined as 755 mg/kg for intraperitoneal and 4 g/kg for oral administration.[76] In the light of these results, compounds of scandium should be handled as compounds of moderate toxicity. Scandium appears to be handled by the body in a manner similar to gallium, with similar hazards involving its poorly soluble hydroxide.[77]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The thermal expansion of scandium is anisotropic: the coefficients for each crystal axis are (at 20 °C): αa = 7.98×10−6/K, αc = 13.94×10−6/K, and αaverage = αV/3 = 9.97×10−6/K.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Scandium". CIAAW. 2021.
  2. ^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
  3. ^ a b Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
  4. ^ a b Cloke, F. Geoffrey N.; Khan, Karl & Perutz, Robin N. (1991). "η-Arene complexes of scandium(0) and scandium(II)". J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. (19): 1372–1373. doi:10.1039/C39910001372.
  5. ^ a b Smith, R. E. (1973). "Diatomic Hydride and Deuteride Spectra of the Second Row Transition Metals". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 332 (1588): 113–127. Bibcode:1973RSPSA.332..113S. doi:10.1098/rspa.1973.0015. S2CID 96908213.
  6. ^ a b McGuire, Joseph C.; Kempter, Charles P. (1960). "Preparation and Properties of Scandium Dihydride". Journal of Chemical Physics. 33 (5): 1584–1585. Bibcode:1960JChPh..33.1584M. doi:10.1063/1.1731452.
  7. ^ Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
  8. ^ a b c Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
  9. ^ "IUPAC Recommendations, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-05-27.
  10. ^ Samson, Iain M.; Chassé, Mathieu (2016), "Scandium", in White, William M. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Geochemistry: A Comprehensive Reference Source on the Chemistry of the Earth, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–5, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39193-9_281-1, ISBN 978-3-319-39193-9
  11. ^ "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020" (PDF). US Geological Survey Mineral Commodities Summary 2020. US Geological Survey. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
  12. ^ "Scandium." Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved 2013-07-17.
  13. ^ a b Meierfrankenfeld, D.; Bury, A.; Thoennessen, M. (2011). "Discovery of scandium, titanium, mercury, and einsteinium isotopes". Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. 97 (2): 134–151. arXiv:1003.5128. doi:10.1016/j.adt.2010.11.001.
  14. ^ Dronchi, N.; Charity, R. J.; Sobotka, L. G.; Brown, B. A.; Weisshaar, D.; Gade, A.; Brown, K. W.; Reviol, W.; Bazin, D.; Farris, P. J.; Hill, A. M.; Li, J.; Longfellow, B.; Rhodes, D.; Paneru, S. N.; Gillespie, S. A.; Anthony, A. K.; Rubino, E.; Biswas, S. (2024-09-12). "Evolution of shell gaps in the neutron-poor calcium region from invariant-mass spectroscopy of 37,38Sc, 35Ca, and 34K". Physical Review C. 110 (3). doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.110.L031302. ISSN 2469-9985.
  15. ^ Latest discovered isotopes, Discovery of Nuclides Project
  16. ^ Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A. 729 (1): 3–128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.8504. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
  17. ^ Lide, David R. (2004). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 4–28. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
  18. ^ "Chemistry for Kids: Elements - Scandium". www.ducksters.com. Retrieved 2024-06-12.
  19. ^ Bernhard, F. (2001). "Scandium mineralization associated with hydrothermal lazurite-quartz veins in the Lower Austroalpie Grobgneis complex, East Alps, Austria". Mineral Deposits in the Beginning of the 21st Century. Lisse: Balkema. ISBN 978-90-265-1846-1.
  20. ^ a b Kristiansen, Roy (2003). "Scandium – Mineraler I Norge" (PDF). Stein (in Norwegian): 14–23.
  21. ^ von Knorring, O.; Condliffe, E. (1987). "Mineralized pegmatites in Africa". Geological Journal. 22 (S2): 253. Bibcode:1987GeolJ..22S.253V. doi:10.1002/gj.3350220619.
  22. ^ Cameron, A.G.W. (June 1957). "Stellar Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis" (PDF). CRL-41.
  23. ^ Phoung, Sinoun; Williams, Eric; Gaustad, Gabrielle; Gupta, Ajay (2023-05-15). "Exploring global supply and demand of scandium oxide in 2030". Journal of Cleaner Production. 401: 136673. Bibcode:2023JCPro.40136673P. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136673. ISSN 0959-6526. S2CID 257338829.
  24. ^ "Establishment of Scandium Recovery Operations" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-10-26.
  25. ^ Iwamoto, Fumio. "Commercial Scandium Oxide Production by Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. Ltd". TMS. Archived from the original on 2021-02-27. Retrieved 2018-10-26.
  26. ^ "NioCorp Announces Final Closing of Non-Brokered Private Placement for Aggregate Gross Proceeds of C$1.77 Million" (Press release). Retrieved 2019-05-18.
  27. ^ "Long-discussed niobium mine in southeast Nebraska is ready to move forward, if it gathers $1 billion in financing ". Retrieved 2019-05-18.
  28. ^ NioCorp Superalloy Materials The Elk Creek Superalloy Materials Project (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-08-19, retrieved 2019-05-18
  29. ^ Deschamps, Y. "Scandium" (PDF). mineralinfo.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-24. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
  30. ^ a b c "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2015: Scandium" (PDF). United States Geological Survey.
  31. ^ Scandium. USGS.
  32. ^ Fujii, Satoshi; Tsubaki, Shuntaro; Inazu, Naomi; Suzuki, Eiichi; Wada, Yuji (2017-09-27). "Smelting of Scandium by Microwave Irradiation". Materials. 10 (10): 1138. Bibcode:2017Mate...10.1138F. doi:10.3390/ma10101138. ISSN 1996-1944. PMC 5666944. PMID 28953241.
  33. ^ Zakharov, V. V. (2014-09-01). "Combined Alloying of Aluminum Alloys with Scandium and Zirconium". Metal Science and Heat Treatment. 56 (5): 281–286. Bibcode:2014MSHT...56..281Z. doi:10.1007/s11041-014-9746-5. ISSN 1573-8973. S2CID 135839152.
  34. ^ "Mineral Commodity Summaries". USGS. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
  35. ^ Horovitz, Chaim T. (2012-12-06). Biochemistry of Scandium and Yttrium, Part 1: Physical and Chemical Fundamentals. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4615-4313-8.
  36. ^ Cotton, Simon (2006). Lanthanide and actinide chemistry. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-470-01006-8. Retrieved 2011-06-23.
  37. ^ Christensen, A. Nørlund; Stig Jorgo Jensen (1967). "Hydrothermal Preparation of α-ScOOH and of γ-ScOOH. Crystal Structure of α-ScOOH". Acta Chemica Scandinavica. 21: 1121–126. doi:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.21-0121.
  38. ^ Deborah Longbottom (1999). "SYNLETT Spotlight 12: Scandium Triflate". Synlett. 1999 (12): 2023. doi:10.1055/s-1999-5997.
  39. ^ Shapiro, Pamela J.; et al. (1994). "Model Ziegler-Natta α-Olefin Polymerization Catalysts Derived from [{(η5-C5Me4)SiMe2(η1-NCMe3)}(PMe3)Sc(μ2-H)]2 and [{(η5C5Me4)SiMe2(η1NCMe3)}Sc(μ1CH2CH2CH3)]2. Synthesis, Structures and Kinetic and Equilibrium Investigations of the Catalytically active Species in Solution". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 116 (11): 4623. doi:10.1021/ja00090a011.
  40. ^ Corbett, J. D. (1981). "Extended metal-metal bonding in halides of the early transition metals". Accounts of Chemical Research. 14 (8): 239–246. doi:10.1021/ar00068a003.
  41. ^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
  42. ^ Polly L. Arnold; F. Geoffrey; N. Cloke; Peter B. Hitchcock & John F. Nixon (1996). "The First Example of a Formal Scandium(I) Complex: Synthesis and Molecular Structure of a 22-Electron Scandium Triple Decker Incorporating the Novel 1,3,5-Triphosphabenzene Ring". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 118 (32): 7630–7631. doi:10.1021/ja961253o.
  43. ^ Ana Mirela Neculai; Dante Neculai; Herbert W. Roesky; Jörg Magull; Marc Baldus; et al. (2002). "Stabilization of a Diamagnetic ScIBr Molecule in a Sandwich-Like Structure". Organometallics. 21 (13): 2590–2592. doi:10.1021/om020090b.
  44. ^ Polly L. Arnold; F. Geoffrey; N. Cloke & John F. Nixon (1998). "The first stable scandocene: synthesis and characterisation of bis(η-2,4,5-tri-tert-butyl-1,3-diphosphacyclopentadienyl)scandium(II)". Chemical Communications (7): 797–798. doi:10.1039/A800089A.
  45. ^ Nilson, Lars Fredrik (1879). "Sur l'ytterbine, terre nouvelle de M. Marignac". Comptes Rendus (in French). 88: 642–647.
  46. ^ Nilson, Lars Fredrik (1879). "Ueber Scandium, ein neues Erdmetall". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 12 (1): 554–557. doi:10.1002/cber.187901201157.
  47. ^ Cleve, Per Teodor (1879). "Sur le scandium". Comptes Rendus (in French). 89: 419–422.
  48. ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1956). The discovery of the elements (6th ed.). Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education.
  49. ^ Fischer, Werner; Brünger, Karl; Grieneisen, Hans (1937). "Über das metallische Scandium". Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie (in German). 231 (1–2): 54–62. doi:10.1002/zaac.19372310107.
  50. ^ Burrell, A. Willey Lower "Aluminum scandium alloy" U.S. patent 3,619,181 issued on November 9, 1971.
  51. ^ Zakharov, V. V. (2003). "Effect of Scandium on the Structure and Properties of Aluminum Alloys". Metal Science and Heat Treatment. 45 (7/8): 246. Bibcode:2003MSHT...45..246Z. doi:10.1023/A:1027368032062. S2CID 135389572.
  52. ^ Hedrick, James B. "Scandium". REEhandbook. Pro-Edge.com. Archived from the original on 2012-06-02. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
  53. ^ Samstag, Tony (1987). "Star-wars intrigue greets scandium find". New Scientist: 26.[permanent dead link]
  54. ^ a b c d Ahmad, Zaki (2003). "The properties and application of scandium-reinforced aluminum". JOM. 55 (2): 35. Bibcode:2003JOM....55b..35A. doi:10.1007/s11837-003-0224-6. S2CID 8956425.
  55. ^ Knipling, Keith E.; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (2006-03-01). "Criteria for developing castable, creep-resistant aluminum-based alloys – A review". Zeitschrift für Metallkunde. 97 (3): 246–265. doi:10.3139/146.101249. ISSN 0044-3093. S2CID 4681149.
  56. ^ Knipling, Keith E.; Karnesky, Richard A.; Lee, Constance P.; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (2010-09-01). "Precipitation evolution in Al–0.1Sc, Al–0.1Zr and Al–0.1Sc–0.1Zr (at.%) alloys during isochronal aging". Acta Materialia. 58 (15): 5184–5195. Bibcode:2010AcMat..58.5184K. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2010.05.054. ISSN 1359-6454.
  57. ^ Booth-Morrison, Christopher; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (2011-10-01). "Coarsening resistance at 400°C of precipitation-strengthened Al–Zr–Sc–Er alloys". Acta Materialia. 59 (18): 7029–7042. Bibcode:2011AcMat..59.7029B. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2011.07.057. ISSN 1359-6454.
  58. ^ De Luca, Anthony; Dunand, David C.; Seidman, David N. (2016-10-15). "Mechanical properties and optimization of the aging of a dilute Al-Sc-Er-Zr-Si alloy with a high Zr/Sc ratio". Acta Materialia. 119: 35–42. Bibcode:2016AcMat.119...35D. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.08.018. ISSN 1359-6454.
  59. ^ Schwarz, James A.; Contescu, Cristian I.; Putyera, Karol (2004). Dekker encyclopédia of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Vol. 3. CRC Press. p. 2274. ISBN 978-0-8247-5049-7.
  60. ^ Youssef, Khaled M.; Zaddach, Alexander J.; Niu, Changning; Irving, Douglas L.; Koch, Carl C. (2015). "A Novel Low-Density, High-Hardness, High-entropy Alloy with Close-packed Single-phase Nanocrystalline Structures". Materials Research Letters. 3 (2): 95–99. doi:10.1080/21663831.2014.985855.
  61. ^ Bjerklie, Steve (2006). "A batty business: Anodized metal bats have revolutionized baseball. But are finishers losing the sweet spot?". Metal Finishing. 104 (4): 61. doi:10.1016/S0026-0576(06)80099-1.
  62. ^ "Easton Technology Report: Materials / Scandium" (PDF). EastonBike.com. Retrieved 2009-04-03.
  63. ^ James, Frank (15 December 2004). Effective handgun defense. Krause Publications. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-0-87349-899-9. Retrieved 2011-06-08.[permanent dead link]
  64. ^ Sweeney, Patrick (13 December 2004). The Gun Digest Book of Smith & Wesson. Gun Digest Books. pp. 34–. ISBN 978-0-87349-792-3. Retrieved 2011-06-08.[permanent dead link]
  65. ^ "APWORKS' Scalmalloy metal additive manufacturing material approved for use in Formula 1". TCT. 2 July 2020. Retrieved 2023-10-11.
  66. ^ a b Hammond, C. R. in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 85th ed., Section 4; The Elements.
  67. ^ Simpson, Robert S. (2003). Lighting Control: Technology and Applications. Focal Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-240-51566-3.
  68. ^ "Scandium International Mining" (PDF). Hallgarten & Company.
  69. ^ Nouri, Keyvan (2011-11-09). "History of Laser Dentistry". Lasers in Dermatology and Medicine. Springer. pp. 464–465. ISBN 978-0-85729-280-3.
  70. ^ Kobayashi, Shu; Manabe, Kei (2000). "Green Lewis acid catalysis in organic synthesis" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 72 (7): 1373–1380. doi:10.1351/pac200072071373. S2CID 16770637.
  71. ^ Shvyd’ko, Yuri; Röhlsberger, Ralf; Kocharovskaya, Olga; et al. (2023). "Resonant X-ray excitation of the nuclear clock isomer 45Sc". Nature. 622 (7983): 471–475. Bibcode:2023Natur.622..471S. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06491-w. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 10584683. PMID 37758953.
  72. ^ Mathur, Lakshya; Jeon, Sang-Yun (2024). "Ternary co-doped ytterbium-scandium stabilized zirconia electrolyte for solid oxide fuel cells". Solid State Ionics. 408: 116507. doi:10.1016/j.ssi.2024.116507.
  73. ^ Dokiya, Masayuki (2002-12-01). "SOFC system and technology". Solid State Ionics. PROCEEDINGS OF INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOLID STATE IONICS, (MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT), CAIRNS, AUSTRALIA, 8-13 JULY, 2001. 152–153: 383–392. doi:10.1016/S0167-2738(02)00345-4. ISSN 0167-2738.
  74. ^ Li, Zhishan; Guo, Meiting (2024). "Utilization of Thermocatalysts in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) Fed with Hydrogen-Rich Fuels: A Mini-Review". Energy Fuels. 38 (12): 10673–10690. doi:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.4c01609.
  75. ^ Horovitz, Chaim T.; Birmingham, Scott D. (1999). Biochemistry of Scandium and Yttrium. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-45657-2.
  76. ^ Haley, Thomas J.; Komesu, L.; Mavis, N.; Cawthorne, J.; Upham, H. C. (1962). "Pharmacology and toxicology of scandium chloride". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 51 (11): 1043–5. doi:10.1002/jps.2600511107. PMID 13952089.
  77. ^ Ganrot, P. O. (1986). "Metabolism and Possible Health Effects of Aluminum". Environmental Health Perspectives. 65: 363–441. doi:10.2307/3430204. ISSN 0091-6765. JSTOR 3430204. PMC 1474689. PMID 2940082.

Further reading

[edit]
Library resources about
Scandium
[edit]
Look up scandium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scandium.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scandium&oldid=1256720865"